فهرست مطالب
Preface/xi
1 Understanding Social Behavior/1
Social Psychology and the Understanding of Social Behavior/2
A Model for Understanding Social Behavior/3
Expanding Lewin’s Model/5
Social Psychology and Related Fields/7
Research in Social Psychology/9
Experimental Research/10
Correlational Research/15
Settings for Social Psychological Research/16
The Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research/16
What Do We Learn from Research in Social Psychology?/20
Ethics and Social Psychological Research/21
Rick Rescorla and 9/11 Revisited/22
Chapter Review/24
2 The Social Self/29
Self-Concept/30
Self-Knowledge: How We Know Thyself?/30
The Self and Memory/32
Religion and the Self/34
The Self: The Influence of Groups and Culture/35
Self-Esteem: Evaluating the Self/40
Internal Influences on Self-Esteem/41
Self-Esteem and Stigma/44
Self-Esteem and Cultural Influences/45
What’s So Good about High Self-Esteem?/45
Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem/46
Self-Control: How People Regulate Their Behavior/46
Self-Control and Self-Regulation/46
The Cost and Ironic Effects of Self-Control/48
Thinking about Ourselves/49
Self-Serving Cognitions/49
Maintaining Self-Consistency/50
Self-Awareness/51
Self-Knowledge and Self-Awareness/52
Managing Self-Presentations/53
Self-Esteem and Impression Management/53
Self-Monitoring and Impression Management 53 Self-Presentation and Manipulative Strategies/54
Self-Handicapping/54
The Impression We Make on Others/56
The Life of James Carroll Revisited/57
Chapter Review/58
3 Social Perception: Understanding Other People/61
Impression Formation: Automaticity and Social Perception/63
Automatic Processing/63
The Impression Others Make on Us: How Do We “Read” People?/69
How Accurate Are Our Impressions?/69
Confi dence and Impression Formation/70
If at First You Don’t Like Someone, You May Never Like Them/70
Person Perception: Reading Faces and Catching Liars/71
The Attribution Process: Deciding Why People Act As They Do/74
Heider’s Early Work on Attribution/74
Correspondent Inference Theory/75
Covariation Theory/76
Dual-Process Models/78
Intentionality and Attributions/79
Attribution Biases/80
Misattributions/80
The Fundamental Attribution Error/81
The Actor-Observer Bias/83
The False Consensus Bias/84
Constructing an Impression of Others/84
The Significance of First Impressions/84
Schemas/85
The Confirmation Bias/87
Shortcuts to Reality: Heuristics/88
Positive Psychology: Optimism, Cognition, Health, and Life/90
Optimism and Cognition/90
Optimism and Health/90
Optimism and Happiness/91
Cognitive Optimism: An Evolutionary Interpretation/95
Bottom Line/95
The Vincennes Revisited/96
Chapter Review/96
4 Prejudice and Discrimination/103
The Dynamics of Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination/104
Prejudice/104
Stereotypes/106
Discrimination/112
The Persistence and Recurrence of Prejudice and Stereotypes/112
Individual Differences and Prejudice: Personality and Gender/114
The Authoritarian Personality/114
Social Dominance Orientation/116
Openness to New Experience and Agreeableness/117
Gender and Prejudice/117
The Social Roots of Prejudice/118
Modern Racism/120
Changing Social Norms/122
The Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: From Categories to Stereotypes/123
Identification with the In-Group/125
The Role of Language in Maintaining Bias/128
The Confi rmation Bias/132
The Out-Group Homogeneity Bias/132
The Difference between Prejudiced and Nonprejudiced Individuals/134
The Consequences of Being a Target of Prejudice/135
Ways Prejudice Can Be Expressed/135
Prejudice-Based Jokes/136
Stereotype Threat/136
Collective Threat/140
Expecting to Be a Target of Prejudice/141
Coping with Prejudice/141
Raising the Value of a Stigmatized Group/141
Making In-Group Comparisons/142
Anticipating and Confronting Prejudice/142
Compensating for Prejudice/143
Reducing Prejudice/144
Contact between Groups/144
Personalizing Out-Group Members/146
Reducing the Expression of Prejudice through Social Norms/146
Reducing Prejudice through Training/147
A Success Story: The Disarming of Racism in the U.S. Army/148
The Mormon Experience Revisited/149
Chapter Review/150
5 Attitudes/155
What Are Attitudes?/157
Allport’s Defi nition of Attitudes/157
Attitude Structures 158 Attitudes as an Expression of Values/159
Explicit and Implicit Attitudes/160
How Are Attitudes Measured?/161
The Attitude Survey/161
Behavioral Measures/162
Cognitive Measures: The Implicit Association Test (IAT)/163
How Are Attitudes Formed?/164
Mere Exposure/164
Direct Personal Experience/165
Operant and Classical Conditioning/165
Observational Learning 166 The Effect of the Mass Media/167
The Heritability Factor/169
The Importance of Groups and Networks/170
Social Networks/172
Attitudes and Behavior/172
An Early Study of Attitudes and Behavior/173
Theory of Planned Behavior/174
The Importance of Conviction/175
The Nonrational Actor/177
Why We Donʼt Like Those Who Think Differently Than We Do: Naïve Realism and Attitudes/179
IDA Tarbell Revisited/181
Chapter Review/181
6 Persuasion and Attitude Change/185
The Yale Communication Model/186
The Persuasion Process/186
The Communicator/187
The Message and the Audience 192ix/Contents
The Cognitive Approach to Persuasion/199
The Elaboration Likelihood Model/199
The Effect of Mood on Processing/201
The Effect of Personal Relevance on Processing/204
The Impact of Attitude Accessibility on Elaboration/205
Do Vivid Messages Persuade Better Than Nonvivid Messages?/206
Need for Cognition: Some Like to Do It the Hard Way/207
The Heuristic Model of Persuasion/208
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A Model of Self-Persuasion/209
Cognitive Dissonance Theory/209
Alternatives to Cognitive Dissonance Theory/217
Persuading the Masses through Propaganda/220
Propaganda: A Defi nition/220
Characteristics of Propaganda/220
The Aims of Propaganda/221
Propaganda Techniques/222
Hitler’s Rise to Power/223
The Leopold and Loeb Case Revisited/226
Chapter Review/226
7 Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience/231
Conformity: Going Along with the Crowd/233
Informational and Normative Social Influence/233
Social Norms: The Key to Conformity/234
Classic Studies in Conformity/235
How Does Social Influence Bring About Conformity?/238
Factors That Affect Conformity/239
Minority Influence/243
Can a Minority Influence the Majority?/244
Majority and Minority Influence: Two Processes or One?/245
Compliance: Responding to a Direct Request/247
Foot-in-the-Door Technique/247
Door-in-the-Face Technique/251
Compliance Techniques: Summing Up/253
Obedience/254
Defining Obedience/255
Destructive Obedience and the Social Psychology of Evil/256
Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience/259
The Role of Gender in Obedience/264
Obedience or Aggression?/265
Obedience across Culture, Situation, and Time/266
Reevaluating Milgram’s Findings/267
Critiques of Milgram’s Research/267
Disobedience/269
Breaking with Authority/269
Reassessing the Legitimacy of the Authority/270
Strength in Numbers/271
The Jury Room Revisited/273
Chapter Review/274
8 Group Processes/281
What Is a Group?/282
Characteristics of Groups/283
What Holds a Group Together?/284
How and Why Do Groups Form?/284
Meeting Basic Needs/284
Roles in Groups/285
How Do Groups Influence the Behavior of Individuals?/286
The Effects of an Audience on Performance/286
Group Performance: Conditions That Decrease or Increase Motivation of Group Members/288
Groups, Self-Identity, and Intergroup Relationships/292
The Power of Groups to Punish: Social Ostracism/293
Deindividuation and Anonymity: The Power of Groups to Do Violence/295
Group Performance/296
Individual Decisions and Group Decisions/296
The Harder the Problem, the Better the Group/298
The Effect of Leadership Style on Group Decision Making/300
Factors That Affect the Decision-Making Ability of a Group/302
Group Composition/302
Group Size/304
Group Cohesiveness/304
The Dynamics of Group Decision Making: Decision Rules, Group Polarization, and Groupthink/305
Group Decisions: How Groups Blend Individual Choices/305
Group Polarization/306
Groupthink/307
The Challenger Explosion Revisited/309
Chapter Review/310
9 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/315
The Roots of Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/317
Affiliation and Intimacy/317
Loneliness and Social Anxiety/318
Loneliness/318
Social Anxiety/319
Love and Close Relationships/320
Love’s Triangle/320
Types of Love/322
The Formation of Intimate Relationships/324
Determinants of Interpersonal Attraction/327
Physical Proximity: Being in the Right Place/327
Similarity/329
Physical Attractiveness/330
Dynamics of Close Relationships/338
Relationship Development/339
Evaluating Relationships/340
Exchange Theories/340
Love over Time/343
Sculpting a Relationship/343
Responses to Confl ict/345
Love in the Lab/347
Friendships/348
Gertrude and Alice Revisited/350
Chapter Review/350
10 Interpersonal Aggression/357
What Is Aggression?/358
Levels and Types of Aggression/358
Gender Differences in Aggression/360
Explanations for Aggression/361
Biological Explanations for Aggression/361
Ethology/362
Sociobiology/362
Genetics and Aggression/363
The Physiology of Aggression/364
Alcohol and Aggression/366
Physiology and Aggression: Summing Up/369
The Frustration-Aggression Link/369
Components of the Frustration-Aggression Sequence/370
Factors Mediating the Frustration–Aggression Link/371
The Social Learning Explanation for Aggression/373
The Socialization of Aggression/374
Aggressive Scripts: Why and How They Develop/376
The Role of the Family in Developing Aggressive Behaviors/377
Child Abuse and Neglect/380
Family Disruption/380
The Role of Culture in Violent Behavior/381
The Role of Television in Teaching Aggression/385
Exposure to Violent Video Games/387
Viewing Sexual Violence: The Impact on Aggression/388
The Impact of Sexually Violent Material on Attitudes/389
Men Prone to Sexual Aggression: Psychological Characteristics/390
Reducing Aggression/391
Reducing Aggression in the Family/391
Reducing Aggression with Cognitive Intervention and Therapy/392
The Beltway Sniper Case Revisited/393
Chapter Review/394
11 Prosocial Behavior and Altruism/401
Why Do People Help?/403
Empathy: Helping in Order to Relieve Another’s Suffering/403
Empathy and Egoism: Two Paths to Helping/404
Biological Explanations: Helping in Order to Preserve Our Own Genes/408
Helping in Emergencies: A Five-Stage Decision Model/410
Stage 1: Noticing the Situation/411
Stage 2: Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/412
Stage 3: Assuming Responsibility to Help: The Bystander Effect/413
Stage 4: Deciding How to Help/418
Stage 5: Implementing the Decision to Help/418
Increasing the Chances of Receiving Help/426
Courageous Resistance and Heroism/426
Explaining Courageous Resistance and Heroism: The Role of Personality/428
Righteous Rescuers in Nazi-Occupied Europe/429
A Synthesis: Situational and Personality Factors in Altruism/434
Applying the Five-Stage Decision Model to Long-Term Helping/437
Noticing the Situation/437
Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/438
Assuming Responsibility to Help/438
Deciding How to Help/438
Implementing the Decision to Help/438
Altruistic Behavior from the Perspective of the Recipient/439
Seeking Help from Others/439
Reacting to Help When It Is Given/441
Irene Opdyke Revisited/444
Chapter Review/444
Glossary/G-1
References/R-1
Name Index/I-1
Subject Index/I-11
1 Understanding Social Behavior/1
Social Psychology and the Understanding of Social Behavior/2
A Model for Understanding Social Behavior/3
Expanding Lewin’s Model/5
Social Psychology and Related Fields/7
Research in Social Psychology/9
Experimental Research/10
Correlational Research/15
Settings for Social Psychological Research/16
The Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research/16
What Do We Learn from Research in Social Psychology?/20
Ethics and Social Psychological Research/21
Rick Rescorla and 9/11 Revisited/22
Chapter Review/24
2 The Social Self/29
Self-Concept/30
Self-Knowledge: How We Know Thyself?/30
The Self and Memory/32
Religion and the Self/34
The Self: The Influence of Groups and Culture/35
Self-Esteem: Evaluating the Self/40
Internal Influences on Self-Esteem/41
Self-Esteem and Stigma/44
Self-Esteem and Cultural Influences/45
What’s So Good about High Self-Esteem?/45
Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem/46
Self-Control: How People Regulate Their Behavior/46
Self-Control and Self-Regulation/46
The Cost and Ironic Effects of Self-Control/48
Thinking about Ourselves/49
Self-Serving Cognitions/49
Maintaining Self-Consistency/50
Self-Awareness/51
Self-Knowledge and Self-Awareness/52
Managing Self-Presentations/53
Self-Esteem and Impression Management/53
Self-Monitoring and Impression Management 53 Self-Presentation and Manipulative Strategies/54
Self-Handicapping/54
The Impression We Make on Others/56
The Life of James Carroll Revisited/57
Chapter Review/58
3 Social Perception: Understanding Other People/61
Impression Formation: Automaticity and Social Perception/63
Automatic Processing/63
The Impression Others Make on Us: How Do We “Read” People?/69
How Accurate Are Our Impressions?/69
Confi dence and Impression Formation/70
If at First You Don’t Like Someone, You May Never Like Them/70
Person Perception: Reading Faces and Catching Liars/71
The Attribution Process: Deciding Why People Act As They Do/74
Heider’s Early Work on Attribution/74
Correspondent Inference Theory/75
Covariation Theory/76
Dual-Process Models/78
Intentionality and Attributions/79
Attribution Biases/80
Misattributions/80
The Fundamental Attribution Error/81
The Actor-Observer Bias/83
The False Consensus Bias/84
Constructing an Impression of Others/84
The Significance of First Impressions/84
Schemas/85
The Confirmation Bias/87
Shortcuts to Reality: Heuristics/88
Positive Psychology: Optimism, Cognition, Health, and Life/90
Optimism and Cognition/90
Optimism and Health/90
Optimism and Happiness/91
Cognitive Optimism: An Evolutionary Interpretation/95
Bottom Line/95
The Vincennes Revisited/96
Chapter Review/96
4 Prejudice and Discrimination/103
The Dynamics of Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination/104
Prejudice/104
Stereotypes/106
Discrimination/112
The Persistence and Recurrence of Prejudice and Stereotypes/112
Individual Differences and Prejudice: Personality and Gender/114
The Authoritarian Personality/114
Social Dominance Orientation/116
Openness to New Experience and Agreeableness/117
Gender and Prejudice/117
The Social Roots of Prejudice/118
Modern Racism/120
Changing Social Norms/122
The Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: From Categories to Stereotypes/123
Identification with the In-Group/125
The Role of Language in Maintaining Bias/128
The Confi rmation Bias/132
The Out-Group Homogeneity Bias/132
The Difference between Prejudiced and Nonprejudiced Individuals/134
The Consequences of Being a Target of Prejudice/135
Ways Prejudice Can Be Expressed/135
Prejudice-Based Jokes/136
Stereotype Threat/136
Collective Threat/140
Expecting to Be a Target of Prejudice/141
Coping with Prejudice/141
Raising the Value of a Stigmatized Group/141
Making In-Group Comparisons/142
Anticipating and Confronting Prejudice/142
Compensating for Prejudice/143
Reducing Prejudice/144
Contact between Groups/144
Personalizing Out-Group Members/146
Reducing the Expression of Prejudice through Social Norms/146
Reducing Prejudice through Training/147
A Success Story: The Disarming of Racism in the U.S. Army/148
The Mormon Experience Revisited/149
Chapter Review/150
5 Attitudes/155
What Are Attitudes?/157
Allport’s Defi nition of Attitudes/157
Attitude Structures 158 Attitudes as an Expression of Values/159
Explicit and Implicit Attitudes/160
How Are Attitudes Measured?/161
The Attitude Survey/161
Behavioral Measures/162
Cognitive Measures: The Implicit Association Test (IAT)/163
How Are Attitudes Formed?/164
Mere Exposure/164
Direct Personal Experience/165
Operant and Classical Conditioning/165
Observational Learning 166 The Effect of the Mass Media/167
The Heritability Factor/169
The Importance of Groups and Networks/170
Social Networks/172
Attitudes and Behavior/172
An Early Study of Attitudes and Behavior/173
Theory of Planned Behavior/174
The Importance of Conviction/175
The Nonrational Actor/177
Why We Donʼt Like Those Who Think Differently Than We Do: Naïve Realism and Attitudes/179
IDA Tarbell Revisited/181
Chapter Review/181
6 Persuasion and Attitude Change/185
The Yale Communication Model/186
The Persuasion Process/186
The Communicator/187
The Message and the Audience 192ix/Contents
The Cognitive Approach to Persuasion/199
The Elaboration Likelihood Model/199
The Effect of Mood on Processing/201
The Effect of Personal Relevance on Processing/204
The Impact of Attitude Accessibility on Elaboration/205
Do Vivid Messages Persuade Better Than Nonvivid Messages?/206
Need for Cognition: Some Like to Do It the Hard Way/207
The Heuristic Model of Persuasion/208
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A Model of Self-Persuasion/209
Cognitive Dissonance Theory/209
Alternatives to Cognitive Dissonance Theory/217
Persuading the Masses through Propaganda/220
Propaganda: A Defi nition/220
Characteristics of Propaganda/220
The Aims of Propaganda/221
Propaganda Techniques/222
Hitler’s Rise to Power/223
The Leopold and Loeb Case Revisited/226
Chapter Review/226
7 Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience/231
Conformity: Going Along with the Crowd/233
Informational and Normative Social Influence/233
Social Norms: The Key to Conformity/234
Classic Studies in Conformity/235
How Does Social Influence Bring About Conformity?/238
Factors That Affect Conformity/239
Minority Influence/243
Can a Minority Influence the Majority?/244
Majority and Minority Influence: Two Processes or One?/245
Compliance: Responding to a Direct Request/247
Foot-in-the-Door Technique/247
Door-in-the-Face Technique/251
Compliance Techniques: Summing Up/253
Obedience/254
Defining Obedience/255
Destructive Obedience and the Social Psychology of Evil/256
Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience/259
The Role of Gender in Obedience/264
Obedience or Aggression?/265
Obedience across Culture, Situation, and Time/266
Reevaluating Milgram’s Findings/267
Critiques of Milgram’s Research/267
Disobedience/269
Breaking with Authority/269
Reassessing the Legitimacy of the Authority/270
Strength in Numbers/271
The Jury Room Revisited/273
Chapter Review/274
8 Group Processes/281
What Is a Group?/282
Characteristics of Groups/283
What Holds a Group Together?/284
How and Why Do Groups Form?/284
Meeting Basic Needs/284
Roles in Groups/285
How Do Groups Influence the Behavior of Individuals?/286
The Effects of an Audience on Performance/286
Group Performance: Conditions That Decrease or Increase Motivation of Group Members/288
Groups, Self-Identity, and Intergroup Relationships/292
The Power of Groups to Punish: Social Ostracism/293
Deindividuation and Anonymity: The Power of Groups to Do Violence/295
Group Performance/296
Individual Decisions and Group Decisions/296
The Harder the Problem, the Better the Group/298
The Effect of Leadership Style on Group Decision Making/300
Factors That Affect the Decision-Making Ability of a Group/302
Group Composition/302
Group Size/304
Group Cohesiveness/304
The Dynamics of Group Decision Making: Decision Rules, Group Polarization, and Groupthink/305
Group Decisions: How Groups Blend Individual Choices/305
Group Polarization/306
Groupthink/307
The Challenger Explosion Revisited/309
Chapter Review/310
9 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/315
The Roots of Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/317
Affiliation and Intimacy/317
Loneliness and Social Anxiety/318
Loneliness/318
Social Anxiety/319
Love and Close Relationships/320
Love’s Triangle/320
Types of Love/322
The Formation of Intimate Relationships/324
Determinants of Interpersonal Attraction/327
Physical Proximity: Being in the Right Place/327
Similarity/329
Physical Attractiveness/330
Dynamics of Close Relationships/338
Relationship Development/339
Evaluating Relationships/340
Exchange Theories/340
Love over Time/343
Sculpting a Relationship/343
Responses to Confl ict/345
Love in the Lab/347
Friendships/348
Gertrude and Alice Revisited/350
Chapter Review/350
10 Interpersonal Aggression/357
What Is Aggression?/358
Levels and Types of Aggression/358
Gender Differences in Aggression/360
Explanations for Aggression/361
Biological Explanations for Aggression/361
Ethology/362
Sociobiology/362
Genetics and Aggression/363
The Physiology of Aggression/364
Alcohol and Aggression/366
Physiology and Aggression: Summing Up/369
The Frustration-Aggression Link/369
Components of the Frustration-Aggression Sequence/370
Factors Mediating the Frustration–Aggression Link/371
The Social Learning Explanation for Aggression/373
The Socialization of Aggression/374
Aggressive Scripts: Why and How They Develop/376
The Role of the Family in Developing Aggressive Behaviors/377
Child Abuse and Neglect/380
Family Disruption/380
The Role of Culture in Violent Behavior/381
The Role of Television in Teaching Aggression/385
Exposure to Violent Video Games/387
Viewing Sexual Violence: The Impact on Aggression/388
The Impact of Sexually Violent Material on Attitudes/389
Men Prone to Sexual Aggression: Psychological Characteristics/390
Reducing Aggression/391
Reducing Aggression in the Family/391
Reducing Aggression with Cognitive Intervention and Therapy/392
The Beltway Sniper Case Revisited/393
Chapter Review/394
11 Prosocial Behavior and Altruism/401
Why Do People Help?/403
Empathy: Helping in Order to Relieve Another’s Suffering/403
Empathy and Egoism: Two Paths to Helping/404
Biological Explanations: Helping in Order to Preserve Our Own Genes/408
Helping in Emergencies: A Five-Stage Decision Model/410
Stage 1: Noticing the Situation/411
Stage 2: Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/412
Stage 3: Assuming Responsibility to Help: The Bystander Effect/413
Stage 4: Deciding How to Help/418
Stage 5: Implementing the Decision to Help/418
Increasing the Chances of Receiving Help/426
Courageous Resistance and Heroism/426
Explaining Courageous Resistance and Heroism: The Role of Personality/428
Righteous Rescuers in Nazi-Occupied Europe/429
A Synthesis: Situational and Personality Factors in Altruism/434
Applying the Five-Stage Decision Model to Long-Term Helping/437
Noticing the Situation/437
Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/438
Assuming Responsibility to Help/438
Deciding How to Help/438
Implementing the Decision to Help/438
Altruistic Behavior from the Perspective of the Recipient/439
Seeking Help from Others/439
Reacting to Help When It Is Given/441
Irene Opdyke Revisited/444
Chapter Review/444
Glossary/G-1
References/R-1
Name Index/I-1
Subject Index/I-11
